On Duties

*112* L. Manlio A. f., cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tr. pl. diem dixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addidisset; criminabatur etiam, quod Titum filium, qui postea est Torquatus appellatus, ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare iussisset. Quod cum audivisset adulescens filius, negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisse Romam et cum primo luci[367] Pomponi domum venisse dicitur. Cui cum esset nuntiatum, qui illum iratum allaturum ad se aliquid contra patrem arbitraretur, surrexit e lectulo remotisque arbitris ad se adulescentem iussit venire. At ille, ut ingressus est, confestim gladium destrinxit iuravitque se illum statim interfecturum, nisi ius iurandum sibi dedisset se patrem missum esse facturum. Iuravit hoc terrore coactus Pomponius; rem ad populum detulit, docuit, cur sibi causa desistere necesse esset, Manlium missum fecit. Tantum temporibus illis ius iurandum valebat.

Atque hic T. Manlius is est, qui ad Anienem Galli, quem ab eo provocatus occiderat, torque detracto cognomen invenit, cuius tertio consulatu Latini ad Veserim fusi et fugati, magnus vir in primis et, qui perindulgens in patrem, idem acerbe severus in filium.

[367] _primo luci_ Beier, Heine, Ed.; _primo lucis_ c; _prima luce_ A B H a b.

#The most striking lesson in the story of Regulus.#

*111* XXXI. But of all that is thus praiseworthy in the conduct of Regulus, this one feature above all others calls for our admiration: it was he who offered the motion that the prisoners of war be retained. For the fact of his returning may seem admirable to us nowadays, but in those times he could not have done otherwise. That merit, therefore, belongs to the age, not to the man. For our ancestors were of the opinion that no bond was more effective in guaranteeing good faith than an oath. That is clearly proved by the laws of the Twelve Tables, by the "sacred" laws,[CG] by the treaties in which good faith is pledged even to the enemy, by the investigations made by the censors and the penalties imposed by them; for there were no cases in which they used to render more rigorous decisions than in cases of violation of an oath.

#The sanctity of an oath in the old days.#

*112* Marcus Pomponius, a tribune of the people, brought an indictment against Lucius Manlius, Aulus's son, for having extended the term of his dictatorship a few days beyond its expiration. He further charged him with having banished his own son Titus (afterward surnamed Torquatus) from all companionship with his fellow-men, and with requiring him to live in the country. When the son, who was then a young man, heard that his father was in trouble on his account, he hastened to Rome--so the story goes--and at daybreak presented himself at the house of Pomponius. The visitor was announced to Pomponius. Inasmuch as he thought that the son in his anger meant to bring him some new evidence to use against the father, he arose from his bed, asked all who were present to leave the room, and sent word to the young man to come in. Upon entering, he at once drew a sword and swore that he would kill the tribune on the spot, if he did not swear an oath to withdraw the suit against his father. Constrained by the terror of the situation, Pomponius gave his oath. He reported the matter to the people, explaining why he was obliged to drop the prosecution, and withdrew his suit against Manlius. Such was the regard for the sanctity of an oath in those days.

And that lad was the Titus Manlius who in the battle on the Anio killed the Gaul by whom he had been challenged to single combat, pulled off his torque and thus won his surname. And in his third consulship he routed the Latins and put them to flight in the battle on the Veseris. He was one of the greatest of the great, and one who, while more than generous toward his father, could yet be bitterly severe toward his son.

[CG] "Sacred" laws, according to Festus (p. 318), were laws that placed their transgressor, together with his household and his property, under the ban of some divinity; other authorities limit the term to the laws enacted upon the Sacred Mount (B.C. 394).

*113* XXXII. Sed, ut laudandus Regulus in conservando iure iurando, sic decem illi, quos post Cannensem pugnam iuratos ad senatum misit Hannibal se in castra redituros ea, quorum erant potiti Poeni, nisi de redimendis captivis impetravissent, si non redierunt, vituperandi. De quibus non omnes uno modo; nam Polybius, bonus auctor in primis, ex decem nobilissimis, qui tum erant missi, novem revertisse dicit re a senatu non impetrata; unum ex decem, qui paulo post, quam erat[368] egressus e castris, redisset, quasi aliquid esset oblitus, Romae remansisse; reditu enim in castra liberatum se esse iure iurando interpretabatur, non recte; fraus enim astringit,[369] non dissolvit periurium. Fuit igitur stulta calliditas perverse imitata prudentiam. Itaque decrevit senatus, ut ille veterator et callidus vinctus ad Hannibalem duceretur.

*114*[370] Sed illud maximum: octo hominum milia tenebat Hannibal, non quos in acie cepisset, aut qui periculo mortis diffugissent, sed qui relicti in castris fuissent a Paulo et a Varrone consulibus. Eos senatus non censuit redimendos, cum id parva pecunia fieri posset, ut esset insitum militibus nostris aut vincere aut emori. Qua quidem re audita fractum animum Hannibalis scribit idem, quod senatus populusque Romanus rebus afflictis tam excelso animo fuisset. Sic honestatis comparatione ea, quae videntur utilia, vincuntur.

*115* _C._[371] Acilius autem, qui Graece scripsit historiam, plures ait fuisse, qui in castra revertissent eadem fraude, ut iure iurando liberarentur, eosque a censoribus omnibus ignominiis notatos.

Sit iam huius loci finis. Perspicuum est enim ea, quae timido animo, humili, demisso fractoque fiant, quale fuisset Reguli factum, si aut de captivis, quod ipsi opus esse videretur, non quod rei publicae, censuisset aut domi remanere voluisset, non esse utilia, quia sint flagitiosa, foeda, turpia.

[368] _Novem ... quam erat_ c, Bt.^1, Ed.; om. A B H a b; _unum qui_ Unger, Bt.^2

[369] _astringit_ c p, Ed., Heine; _distringit_ A B H a b, Unger, Bt.

[370] § 114 bracketed by Heus., Bt., as un-Ciceronian.

#Contrast between Regulus and the ten envoys from Hannibal.#

*113* XXXII. Now, as Regulus deserves praise for being true to his oath, so those ten whom Hannibal sent to the senate on parole after the battle of Cannae deserve censure, if it is true that they did not return; for they were sworn to return to the camp which had fallen into the hands of the Carthaginians, if they did not succeed in negotiating an exchange of prisoners. Historians are not in agreement in regard to the facts. Polybius, one of the very best authorities, states that of the ten eminent nobles who were sent at that time, nine returned when their mission failed at the hands of the senate. But one of the ten, who, a little while after leaving the camp, had gone back on the pretext that he had forgotten something or other, remained behind at Rome; he explained that by his return to the camp he was released from the obligation of his oath. He was wrong; for deceit does not remove the guilt of perjury--it merely aggravates it. #The ancient Roman discipline.# His cunning that impudently tried to masquerade as prudence was, therefore, only folly. And so the senate ordered that the cunning scoundrel should be taken back to Hannibal in chains.

*114* But the most significant part of the story is this: the eight thousand prisoners in Hannibal's hands were not men that he had taken in the battle or that had escaped in the peril of their lives, but men that the consuls Paulus and Varro had left behind in camp. Though these might have been ransomed by a small sum of money, the senate voted not to redeem them, in order that our soldiers might have the lesson planted in their hearts that they must either conquer or die. When Hannibal heard this news, according to that same writer, he lost heart completely, because the senate and the people of Rome displayed courage so lofty in a time of disaster. Thus apparent expediency is outweighed when placed in the balance against moral rectitude.

*115* Gaius Acilius, on the other hand, the author of a history of Rome in Greek, says that there were several who played the same trick of returning to the camp to release themselves thus from the obligation of their oath, and that they were branded by the censors with every mark of disgrace.

Let this be the conclusion of this topic. For it must be perfectly apparent that acts that are done with a cowardly, craven, abject, broken spirit, as the act of Regulus would have been if he had supported in regard to the prisoners a measure that seemed to be advantageous for him personally, but disadvantageous for the state, or if he had consented to remain at home--that such acts are not expedient because they are shameful, dishonourable, and immoral.

*116* XXXIII. Restat quarta pars, quae decore, moderatione, modestia, continentia, temperantia continetur.

Potest igitur quicquam utile esse, quod sit huic talium virtutum choro contrarium? Atqui ab Aristippo Cyrenaici atque Annicerii philosophi nominati omne bonum in voluptate posuerunt virtutemque censuerunt ob eam rem esse laudandam, quod efficiens esset voluptatis. Quibus obsoletis floret Epicurus, eiusdem fere adiutor auctorque sententiae. Cum his "viris[372] equisque," ut dicitur, si honestatem tueri ac retinere sententia est, decertandum est.

*117* Nam si non modo utilitas, sed vita omnis beata corporis firma constitutione eiusque constitutionis spe explorata, ut a Metrodoro scriptum est, continetur, certe haec utilitas, et quidem summa (sic enim censent), cum honestate pugnabit. Nam ubi primum prudentiae locus dabitur? an ut conquirat undique suavitates? Quam miser virtutis famulatus servientis voluptati! Quod autem munus prudentiae? an legere intellegenter voluptates? Fac nihil isto esse iucundius, quid cogitari potest turpius?

Iam, qui dolorem summum malum dicat, apud eum quem habet locum fortitudo, quae est dolorum laborumque contemptio? Quamvis enim multis locis dicat Epicurus, sicuti[373] dicit, satis fortiter de dolore, tamen non id spectandum est, quid dicat, sed quid consentaneum sit ei dicere, qui bona voluptate terminaverit, mala dolore.

Et,[374] si illum audiam, de continentia et temperantia dicit ille quidem multa multis locis, sed aqua haeret, ut aiunt; nam qui potest temperantiam laudare is, qui ponat summum bonum in voluptate? est enim temperantia libidinum inimica, libidines autem consectatrices voluptatis.

*118* Atque in his tamen tribus generibus, quoquo modo possunt, non incallide tergiversantur; prudentiam introducunt scientiam suppeditantem voluptates, depellentem dolores; fortitudinem quoque aliquo modo expediunt, cum tradunt rationem neglegendae mortis, perpetiendi doloris; etiam temperantiam inducunt non facillime illi quidem, sed tamen quoquo modo possunt; dicunt enim voluptatis magnitudinem doloris detractione finiri. Iustitia vacillat vel iacet potius omnesque eae virtutes, quae in communitate cernuntur et in societate generis humani. Neque enim bonitas nec liberalitas nec comitas esse potest, non plus quam amicitia, si haec non per se expetantur,[375] sed ad voluptatem utilitatemve referantur.

*119* Nam ut utilitatem nullam esse docuimus, quae honestati esset contraria, sic omnem voluptatem dicimus honestati esse contrariam. Quo magis reprehendendos Calliphontem et Dinomachum iudico, qui se dirempturos controversiam putaverunt, si cum honestate voluptatem tamquam cum homine pecudem copulavissent. Non recipit istam coniunctionem honestas, aspernatur, repellit. Nec vero finis bonorum [et malorum],[376] qui simplex esse debet, ex dissimillimis rebus misceri et temperari potest. #De Finibus, II# Sed de hoc (magna enim res est) alio loco pluribus; nunc ad propositum.

*120* Quem ad modum igitur, si quando ea, quae videtur[377] utilitas, honestati repugnat, diiudicanda res sit, satis est supra disputatum. Sin autem speciem utilitatis etiam voluptas habere dicetur, nulla potest esse ei cum honestate coniunctio. Nam, ut tribuamus aliquid voluptati, condimenti fortasse non nihil, utilitatis certe nihil habebit.

*121* Habes a patre munus, Marce fili, mea quidem sententia magnum, sed perinde erit, ut acceperis. Quamquam hi tibi tres libri inter Cratippi commentarios tamquam hospites erunt recipiendi; sed, ut, si ipse venissem Athenas (quod quidem esset factum, nisi me e medio cursu clara voce patria revocasset), aliquando me quoque audires, sic, quoniam his voluminibus ad te profecta vox est mea, tribues iis[378] temporis quantum poteris, poteris autem, quantum voles. Cum vero intellexero te hoc scientiae genere gaudere, tum et praesens tecum propediem, ut spero, et, dum aberis, absens loquar.

Vale igitur, mi Cicero, tibique persuade esse te quidem mihi carissimum, sed multo fore cariorem, si talibus monitis[379] praeceptisque laetabere.

[372] _viris_ c p, Edd.; _veris_ A B H b.

[373] _sicuti_ L c, Edd.; _sicut id_ A B H a b.

[374] _dolore. Et_ Müller, Heine; _dolore: ut_ MSS., Bt.; _dolore. Ut_ Ed.

[375] _expetantur_ A, Edd.; _expectantur_ B a; _exspectantur_ c.

[376] Omitted by Muretus; bracketed by Heine, Ed., et al.

[377] _videtur_ c, Edd.; _videretur_ B H a b; _viderentur_ A.

[378] _iis_ Edd.; _his_ A B H a b; _hijs_ c.

[379] _monitis_ Lambinus, Edd.; _monumentis_ A B H a b; _monimentis_ c.

*116* XXXIII. We have still left our fourth division, comprising propriety, moderation, temperance, self-restraint, self-control.

Can anything be expedient, then, which is contrary to such a chorus of virtues? And yet the Cyrenaics, adherents of the school of Aristippus, and the philosophers who bear the name of Anniceris find all good to consist in pleasure and consider virtue praiseworthy only because it is productive of pleasure. Now that these schools are out of date, Epicurus has come into vogue--an advocate and supporter of practically the same doctrine. Against such a philosophy we must fight it out "with horse and foot," as the saying is, if our purpose is to defend and maintain our standard of moral rectitude.

*117* For if, as we find it in the writings of Metrodorus, not only expediency but happiness in life depends wholly upon a sound physical constitution and the reasonable expectation that it will always remain sound, then that expediency--and what is more, the highest expediency, as they estimate it--will assuredly clash with moral rectitude. For, first of all, what position will wisdom occupy in that system? The position of collector of pleasures from every possible source? What a sorry state of servitude for a virtue--to be pandering to sensual pleasure! And what will be the function of wisdom? To make skilful choice between sensual pleasures? Granted that there may be nothing more pleasant, what can be conceived more degrading for wisdom than such a rôle?

Then again, if anyone hold that pain is the supreme evil, what place in his philosophy has fortitude, which is but indifference to toil and pain? For however many passages there are in which Epicurus speaks right manfully of pain, we must nevertheless consider not what he says, but what it is consistent for a man to say who has defined the good in terms of pleasure and evil in terms of pain.

And further, if I should listen to him, I should find that in many passages he has a great deal to say about temperance and self-control; but "the water will not run," as they say. For how can he commend self-control and yet posit pleasure as the supreme good? For self-control is the foe of the passions, and the passions are the handmaids of pleasure.

*118* And yet when it comes to these three cardinal virtues, those philosophers shift and turn as best they can, and not without cleverness. They admit wisdom into their system as the knowledge that provides pleasures and banishes pain; they clear the way for fortitude also in some way to fit in with their doctrines, when they teach that it is a rational means for looking with indifference upon death and for enduring pain. They bring even temperance in--not very easily, to be sure, but still as best they can; for they hold that the height of pleasure is found in the absence of pain. Justice totters or rather, I should say, lies already prostrate; so also with all those virtues which are discernible in social life and the fellowship of human society. For neither goodness nor generosity nor courtesy can exist, any more than friendship can, if they are not sought of and for themselves, but are cultivated only for the sake of sensual pleasure or personal advantage.

#Sensual pleasure and moral rectitude incompatible.#

*119* As I have shown that such expediency as is opposed to moral rectitude is no expediency, so I maintain that any and all sensual pleasure is opposed to moral rectitude. And therefore Calliphon and Dinomachus, in my judgment, deserve the greater condemnation; they imagined that they should settle the controversy by coupling pleasure with moral rectitude; as well yoke a man with a beast! But moral rectitude does not accept such a union; she abhors it, spurns it. Why, the supreme good, which ought to be simple, cannot be a compound and mixture of absolutely contradictory qualities. But this theory I have discussed more fully in another connection; for the subject is a large one. Now for the matter before us.

*120* We have, then, fully discussed the problem how a question is to be decided, if ever that which seems to be expediency clashes with moral rectitude. But if, on the other hand, the assertion is made that pleasure admits of a show of expediency also, there can still be no possible union between it and moral rectitude. For, to make the most generous admission we can in favour of pleasure, we will grant that it may contribute something that possibly gives some spice to life, but certainly nothing that is really expedient.

*121* Herewith, my son Marcus, you have a present from your father--a generous one, in my humble opinion; but its value will depend upon the spirit in which you receive it. And yet you must welcome these three books as fellow-guests, so to speak, along with your notes on Cratippus's lectures. But as you would sometimes give ear to me also, if I had come to Athens (and I should be there now, if my country had not called me back with accents unmistakable, when I was half-way there), so you will please devote as much time as you can to these volumes, for in them my voice will travel to you; and you can devote to them as much time as you will. And when I see that you take delight in this branch of philosophy, I shall then talk further with you--at an early date,[CH] I hope, face to face--but as long as you are abroad, I shall converse with you thus at a distance.

Farewell, my dear Cicero, and be assured that, while you are the object of my deepest affection, you will be dearer to me still, if you find pleasure in such counsel and instruction.

[CH] But Cicero never saw his son Marcus again.

References are to Book and Section; all dates, given in parentheses (...), are B.C.

Academicians. 1. adherents of the New Academy (_q.v._); their right to teach ethics, I, 6; attitude toward knowledge, II, 7; Cicero's philosophy, II, 1-8. 2. adherents of the Old Academy, III, 20.

Academy, 1. the Older, a school of philosophy founded by Plato and so called from its home; their doctrine of ideas, III, 76, 81; the pre-existence and immortality of the soul; monotheism; the goodness of God; striving after His perfection. 2. the New, a modification of the Old, sceptical, anti-dogmatic, eclectic, III, 20.

Accius, Lucius, a tragic poet (born 170). His tragedies were mostly imitations from the Greek. Cicero knew him personally; quotes from him, III, 84, 102, 106.

Acilius; Gaius Acilius Glabrio (tribune, 197); interpreter, when Carneades, Diogenes, and Critolaus came to Rome; author of History of Rome, III, 115.

Admiration, how won with dignity, II, 31 fg.

Aeacidae, descendants of Aeacus (_q.v._), the father of Peleus and Telamon and grandfather of Achilles and Ajax, I, 38.

Aeacus, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and king of Aegina (_q.v._); renowned for his justice and piety, I, 97; after his death he became with Minos and Rhadamanthus judge in Hades.

Aegina, an island in the Saronic Gulf, a dangerous rival to Athens, directly in front of Piraeus and only twelve miles away, III, 46; unjustly appropriated by Athens (429), III, 46.

Aeginetans, the people of Aegina (_q.v._).

Aequians, a warlike mountain tribe on the upper Anio, warring against Rome (till 304), I, 35.

Aesopus, Claudius, an intimate friend of Cicero, Rome's greatest tragic actor, I, 114.

Africa, the province in which Carthage was, I, 112 (Thapsus); III, 99 (Carthage).

Agamemnon, leader of the war against Troy; when detained at Aulis he sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to save the expedition, III, 95. For this he was slain on his return from Troy by his wife Clytaemnestra.

Agesilaus, king of Sparta (398-360); waged war in Asia (396-394), victor at Coronea, saviour of Sparta after Mantinea (362); II, 16.

Agis IV, king of Sparta (244-240); attempted to re-establish the institutions of Lycurgus and reform property abuses; put to death through organized wealth, II, 80.

Agrarian Laws, a menace to the stability of the government, II, 78-83.

Agriculture, impossible without man, II, 12; man's noblest calling, I, 151.

Agrigentum, a city on the south coast of Sicily, once "the most beautiful city of mortals," ruled by Phalaris (560), II, 26.

Ajax, son of Telamon; could brook no wrong, went mad, and committed suicide when the arms of Achilles were awarded to Odysseus, I, 113; rebuked Odysseus, III, 98. Subject of a tragedy by Ennius, I, 114.

Albucius, Titus, an Epicurean; praetor in Sardinia (105); prosecuted for extortion, II, 50.

Alexander, the Great (356-323), son of Philip of Macedon, II, 16, 48; greater than his father in achievement, inferior in courtliness, I, 90; governor of Macedonia (340), II, 53; conquered Greece (338-335), subdued Asia (334-331), Egypt (331), invaded India (329-327), founded Alexandria and other cities, and died of a drunken debauch (I, 90).

Alexander, tyrant of Pherae (369); brother, son-in-law, and successor of Jason (_q.v._), defeated and slew Pelopidas of Thebes at Cynocephalae (364); murdered by his wife and her three brothers, II, 25, 26.

Alexandria, the metropolis of Egypt at the mouth of the Nile; founded by Alexander (332); centre of wealth (II, 82); grain market, III, 50.

Alps, the mountains between Italy and further Gaul, II, 28.

Ambition, a cause of injustice, I, 25-26, 46, 65; of moral wrong, III, 82; of treason, III, 82-83; the foe of freedom, I, 68; II, 28.

Anio, the Sabine river, tributary to the Tiber; the battle on (340), which gave Rome supremacy over all Latium, III, 112.

Anniceris, of Cyrene (4th century), a successor of Aristippus; his school a cross between the Epicurean and the Cyrenaic: he denied that pleasure was merely absence of pain; he held that every act had its own distinct purpose and that the virtues are good in themselves; his teachings were not permanent, III, 116.

Antigonus, one of Alexander's generals, governor of Asia (323-301), king of Asia (306-301); father of Demetrius Poliorcetes and Philip, II, 48.

Antiope, mother of Amphion and Zethus, by whom she was saved from the persecutions of her former husband Lycus and his wife Dirce; her vengeance on Dirce drove her mad; subject of a tragedy of Pacuvius, I, 114.

Antipater, vice-regent of Macedon (334); father of Cassander, II, 48.

Antipater, of Tarsus (2nd century), pupil and successor of Diogenes of Babylonia; teacher of Panaetius; his ethical teachings, III, 51-55, 91.

Antipater, of Tyre (1st century), friend of Cato the younger; a Stoic, II, 86.

Antonius, Marcus, the famous orator (143-87), II, 49; advocate, III, 67; father of Cicero's colleague and grandfather of the triumvir.

Apelles, of Cos (4th century), the greatest painter of his age; court painter to Alexander the Great; his masterpiece was a Venus rising from the sea; another Venus left unfinished, III, 10.

Apollo, god of the light of day; giver of oracles at Pytho, II, 77.

Appetite, subject to Reason, I, 101-103, 132, 141.

Appius Claudius Pulcher, father of Gaius, II, 57.

Aquilius; Gaius Aquilius Gallus, famous jurist; Cicero's colleague in the praetorship; author of formulae on criminal fraud, III, 60-61.

Aquilius, Manius, consul (101) with Marius; victorious in the Servile War in Sicily; prosecuted (98) but acquitted, II, 50.

Aratus, of Sicyon, soldier and statesman (271-213), removed the tyrant Nicocles (251) and averted financial ruin, II, 81, 82; leader of the Achaean League; poisoned by order of Philip of Macedon.

Areopagites, members of the Council of Areopagus.

Areopagus, "Mars Hill," a spur of the Acropolis, seat of the highest court of Athens; the court itself, with powers of senate and supreme court, reorganized and enlarged in function by Solon, I, 75.

Arginusae, a group of islands off the coast of Asia Minor, near Lesbos, scene of the victory of the Athenian fleet (406), I, 84.

Argos, the chief city of Argolis, II, 81.

Aristides, "the Just," III, [16], 49, 87; fought at Marathon (490), Salamis (480), and commanded the Athenians at Plataea (479); exiled (483) because his policies clashed with those of Themistocles.

Aristippus, of Cyrene (flourished 370), founder of the Cyrenaic school, III, 116; disciple of Socrates, but taught that the chief end of man was to get enjoyment from everything (hedonism), to subject all things and circumstances to himself for pleasure; but pleasure must be the slave not the master; good and bad identical with pleasure and pain; I, 148.

Aristo, of Chios (3rd century), a Stoic philosopher, pupil of Zeno; he taught indifference to externals, nothing good but virtue, nothing evil but vice; his theories rejected, I, 6.

Aristotle (385-322), disciple of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great; founder of the Peripatetic school; greatest of philosophers, master of all knowledge--physics, metaphysics, natural philosophy, ethics, politics, poetics, sociology, logic, rhetoric, etc.; II, 56; III, 35; might have been a great orator, I, 4.

Arpinates, the people of Arpinum, owners of public lands, I, 21.

Arpinum, a town in Latium, birthplace of Cicero and Gaius Marius, I, 21.

Athenians, the people of Athens, I, 75, 84; their cruel subjugation of Aegina, III, 46; left their homes to fight at Salamis, III, 48; political strife, I, 86; high moral principles of, III, 49, 55.

Athens, II, 64, 86; III, 55, 87; the intellectual and artistic centre of the world; led Greece in the Persian wars (490-479); humbled by Sparta (404); the university city of the Roman world, I, 1; III, 6, 121.

Atilius; Sextus Atilius Serranus, consul (136), III, 109.

Atreus, son of Pelops and father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, murderer of his half-brother Chrysippus and of his brother Thyestes's children; murdered by his nephew Aegisthus; a fruitful theme for tragedy, I, 97; III, 106.

Attic, belonging to Attica, the province in which Athens is situated; Attic comedy, the comedy of Aristophanes, Eupolis, Menander, etc., I, 104.

Avarice, the great temptation, II, 38, 77; the root of evil, III, 73-75; due to delusion as to expediency, III, 36; avoided by the statesman, II, 76-77; contrary to all law, III, 21-23; _see also_ Covetousness.

Babylonia, the district around Babylon at the head of the Persian Gulf, III, 51.

Bardulis, king of Illyria, conquered a large part of Macedonia from Perdiccas, the brother and predecessor of Philip; defeated and slain by Philip (358); called a "brigand," because his career did not tend to promote civilization, II, 40.

Basilus, Lucius Minucius, otherwise unknown; perhaps Sulla's lieutenant, III, 73-74.

Beauty, physical, I, 98, 126; types of, I, 130.

Brutus, Lucius Junius, led the Romans to expel the Tarquins; helped by Collatinus, who shared with him the first consulship (509), III, 40.

Brutus, Marcus Junius, an eminent jurist, one of the three founders of the civil law; father of "the Accuser," II, 50.

Brutus; Marcus Junius Brutus Accusator, orator and vigorous prosecutor, son of the preceding, II, 50.

Caelian Hill, the south-east hill of Rome, III, 66.

Caesar, Gaius Julius, son of Lucius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus, candidate for the consulship (88), slain by Marius (87); poet and orator, I, 108, 133.

Caesar, Gaius Julius (100-44), consul (59), in Gaul (58-50), conquered Pompey at Pharsalus (48), dictator (48-44), assassinated (44); orator, statesman, scholar, soldier; despot, II, 2; tyrant, I, 112; II, 23-28, 83; confiscator, I, 43; II, 84; enslaver of Rome, III, 85; treatment of Marseilles, II, 28; a victim of depraved ambition, I, 26; III, 83; a conspirator with Catiline, his love of wrong, II, 84; deserved his death, III, 19, 32, 82.

Caesar, Lucius Julius, father of the Dictator, I, 108.

Callicratidas, succeeded Lysander as admiral of the Spartan fleet, I, 109; defeated Conon, took Lesbos, lost the battle and his life at Arginusae (406), I, 84.

Calliphon, a Greek philosopher, probably a disciple of Epicurus, taught that the supreme good was a union between moral rectitude and pleasure, III, 119.

Calpurnius; Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi; _see_ Piso.

Calpurnius; Publius Calpurnius Lanarius; _see_ Lanarius.

Calypso, the nymph of Ogygia, who kept Odysseus (Ulysses) with her seven years, I, 113.

Campus (Martius), the open plain next to the Tiber outside the north wall of Rome; playground and drillground, I, 104.

Canius, Gaius, a Roman knight, III, 58-60.

Cannae, a town on the Aufidus in Apulia, scene of Hannibal's overwhelming defeat of the Romans (216), I, 40; III, 47, 113.

Capitolium, the Capitoline Hill, between the forum and the Tiber, the citadel of Rome, with the temple of Jupiter and Good Faith, III, 104; place of augury, III, 66.

Carthage, once a mighty city, on the north central coast of Africa, III, 99, 100; the most formidable commercial and military rival of Rome; conquered by Rome in the First Punic War (264-241), I, 39; Second Punic War (219-202), I, 40; III, 47; destroyed in the Third (149-146), I, 35; II, 76.

Carthaginians, the people of Carthage, I, 39, 108; III, 99, 110, 113; treacherous, III, 102; cruel, III, 100, 102; treaty-breaking, I, 38.

Cassander, son of Antipater, disinherited by his father, gained the throne of Macedonia (306) by wars and murders (319-301), II, 48.

Cato, Marcus Porcius, the Censor (or Major, the Elder, I, 37) (234-149), author, I, 104; III, 1; orator, III, 104; soldier, served in Second Punic War (217-202); statesman, responsible for the destruction of Carthage (146), I, 79; "the Wise," III, 16; consul (195); censor (184); stalwart champion of the simple life and stern morals, II, 89; bitterly opposed luxury and Greek culture; yielded in old age.

Cato, Marcus Porcius, son of the preceding; jurist; served under Paulus in Macedon (168), I, 37; [under Marcus Popilius Laenas in Liguria (172), I, 36].

Cato, Marcus Porcius, grandson of the Censor and father of Cato Uticensis, III, 66.

Cato; Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (95-46), son of the preceding and great-grandson of the Censor; a Stoic philosopher; orator; soldier, I, 112; defeated at Thapsus (46); judge, III, 66; stern and unyielding as his great-grandfather, I, 112; III, 88; his suicide, I, 112; close friend of Cicero (II, 2); III, 88.

Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, half-brother of Julius Caesar Strabo, I, 133; orator; scholar, I, 133; author; soldier; consul with Marius (102) in the war against the Cimbri (101); gentleman, I, 109; committed suicide to escape the proscriptions of Marius (87).

Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, son of the preceding, defeated Lepidus at the Milvian bridge; statesman, I, 76; scholar, I, 133.

Caudium, a little town in the mountains of Samnium; near it are the Caudine Forks, the scene of the disastrous battle (321); III, 109; (II, 79).

Celtiberians, a powerful people of central Spain, opposed Rome in Second Punic War, were reduced in the Numantian War (134), submitted on the death of Sertorius (72), I, 38.

Centumalus, Tiberius Claudius; unknown, III, 66.

Chremes, a character in Terence's _Heauton Timorumenus_, I, 30.

Chrysippus, of Soli (250-207), studied Stoic philosophy at Athens under Cleanthes, whom he succeeded; voluminous writer. "Had there been no Chrysippus, there had been no Stoa," III, 42.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, the orator's father, III, 77; died (64).

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, the orator (106-43), born at Arpinum, educated at Rome under Archias, the Scaevolas, and the teachers of philosophy (_see_ Introduction), at Athens, in Asia, and at Rhodes; his training was all for service, I, 155; as consul (63) he crushed the conspiracy of Catiline, I, 84; banished (58), II, 58; his enforced retirement from his profession, III, 2-4; as a philosopher and orator, I, 1-3; follower of Socrates and Plato, I, 2; of the New Academy, II, 7-8; why he wrote on philosophy, II, 2-8; III, 1-5; attitude on the downfall of the Republic, II, 2.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, the orator's only son, I, 1, 15, 78; II, 1-8, 44; III, 1, 5, 33; born in 65; served with credit under Pompey, II, 45, and Sextus Pompey; a student of Peripatetic philosophy under Cratippus in Athens (44-43), I, 1; admonished to read also his father's works, I, 3; III, 121; served under Brutus (43-42); consul with Octavian (30).

Cimbrians, a Celtic people, migrating in a vast horde toward Italy, were cut to pieces by Marius and Catulus in the Raudian Plains near Verona (101), I, 38.

Cimon, of Athens, son of the great Miltiades; victorious admiral; statesman; genial and generous, II, 64; died (449).

Circe, nymph of Aeaea, a sorceress; she kept Odysseus (Ulysses) in her halls a year, I, 113.

Civic, compared with military service, I, 74 fg.

Claudius; _see_ Appius and Centumalus and Pulcher.

Cleombrotus, son of Pausanias, king of Sparta, fell at Leuctra (371), I, 84.

Clodius; Publius Clodius Pulcher, Cicero's inveterate enemy, one of the most turbulent and corrupt characters of Rome, guilty of mutiny in the army, bribery in the courts, profligacy in his public and private life; secured Cicero's banishment; hired gladiators to force his own election to the praetorship, but was killed in a broil with Milo's rival gang of ruffians, II, 58.

Cloelia, a Roman girl sent as a hostage to Porsena; she made her escape by swimming the Tiber, was sent back, but restored by the king with rewards for her courage, (I, 61).

Clytaemnestra, daughter of Tyndareus, wife of Agamemnon, paramour of Aegisthus, with whom she murdered her husband on his return from Troy; she was in turn slain by her son Orestes. Subject of a tragedy by Accius, I, 114.

Cocles, Horatius, the hero who with two others kept the bridge against Porsena and Tarquin, I, 61.

Collatinus, Lucius Tarquinius, husband of Lucretia, associate of Brutus in driving out the Tarquins and his colleague in the first consulship (509), III, 40.

Conon, famous Athenian admiral, defeated by Lysander at Aegospotami (405), victorious over Pisander of Sparta at Cnidus (394), restored the long walls, I, 116.

Considerateness, a subdivision of the virtue of Temperance, I, 99, 143.

Conversation, a division of speech, I, 132-133; II, 48; an art, I, 134-135.

Co-operation, and civilization, II, 12-16; and the virtues, II, 17-18; _vs._ Fortune, II, 19; a universal need, II, 39; how secured, II, 21 fg.

Corinth, a famous city at the Isthmus of Corinth; wealthy; next to Athens, richest in treasures of art; head of the Achaean League; sacked and utterly destroyed by the Romans under Mummius (146), I, 35; II, 76; III, 46.

Cornelius; _see_ Scipio and Spinther and Sulla.

Cos, chief city of the island of Cos, one of the Sporades; famed for its silks; the birthplace of Apelles, painter of the Coan Venus, III, 10.

Cotta, Gaius Aurelius, distinguished orator; one of the speakers in Cicero's _de Oratore_ and _de Natura Deorum_; consul (75); II, 59.

Covetousness, I, 68; III, 30; _see_ Avarice.

Crassus, Lucius Licinius, the famous orator, II, 63; III, 67; at 21 (119) he won renown by his prosecution of Carbo, the one-time friend of the Gracchi, II, 47, 49; his aedileship most splendid, II, 57; as consul (95), he secured the expulsion from Rome of all who were not citizens, III, 47; this was a cause of the Social War. He was the greatest orator of Rome before Cicero, fluent, graceful, witty, I, 108, 133; Cicero's mouthpiece in the _de Oratore_.

Crassus; Marcus Licinius Crassus Dives, the triumvir; his wealth and ambition, I, 25; sided with Sulla against Marius and grew enormously rich by the proscriptions; his avarice did not shrink from any meanness or even crime, I, 109; III, 73-75. He defeated Spartacus (71); slain in Parthia (53).

Crassus; Publius Licinius Crassus Dives, II, 57; father of the triumvir, consul (97); ended his own life to escape the prescriptions of Marius (87); Cicero bought his house.

Cratippus, of Mitylene, an eminent Peripatetic, came to Athens (about 50) to lecture; foremost of contemporary philosophers and teacher of young Cicero, I, 1, 2; II, 8; III, 5, 6, 33, 121.

Cunning, not wisdom, II, 10; III, 72, 96.

Curio, Gaius Scribonius, II, 59; orator and statesman, III, 88; consul, (76).

Cynics, a school of philosophy so called from the Athenian gymnasium, Cynosarges, where they met, later adapted to their snarling manner and dirty habits; its leaders were Antisthenes of Athens, a disciple of Socrates, and Diogenes of Sinope; they taught the virtue of poverty and want, indifference to all convention and decency; Cicero's contempt for them and their so-called philosophy, I, 128, 148.

Cyrenaics, the philosophic sect founded by Aristippus (_q.v._), III, 116.

Cyrus, the Great, founder of the Persian Empire; wonderfully gifted in winning the co-operation of men and nations, II, 16.

Damon, a Pythagorean and friend of Phintias, III, 45.

Debts, cancellation of, II, 78-79, 83-85; avoidance of, II, 84; payment enforced, II, 84.

Decius; Publius Decius Mus, father and son, I, 61; III, 16; the former, consul with Manlius Torquatus (360), devoted himself to death in the battle on the Veseris. The son did the same at the battle of Sentinum (295) and brought the Samnite wars to an end.

Demetrius of Phalerum (345-283), orator, statesman, II, 60; philosopher, poet; pupil of Theophrastus, I, 3; the only Greek who was both orator and philosopher, I, 3; he inspired the founding of the Alexandrine library.

Demetrius Poliorcetes, II, 26; son of Antigonus and king of Macedon (294-287). His life was occupied with continuous warfare against enemies in Egypt, Asia, Greece, Macedonia, Epirus.

Demosthenes, the greatest orator of Athens (385-322); pupil of Isaeus and of Plato, I, 4; might have been a great philosopher, I, 4; at 18 he prosecuted his defaulting guardian with success, II, 47; then turned to public speaking and statecraft as a profession.

Diana, goddess of the light of the night, identified with Artemis, III, 95.

Dicaearchus, of Messana (4th century), a Peripatetic philosopher, geographer, and historian, II, 16; pupil of Aristotle and friend of Theophrastus.

Dinomachus, a Greek philosopher, always named with Calliphon (_q.v._), III, 119.

Diogenes, of Babylonia, pupil and successor of Chrysippus; best known for his part in the famous embassy with Carneades and Critolaus from Athens to Rome (156) where, on motion of Cato, they were not permitted to remain; his ethics rather loose, III, 51-55, 91.

Dion, a kinsman of the elder Dionysius and tyrant of Syracuse (356-353); a devoted disciple of Plato at Syracuse and Athens, I, 155.

Dionysius, the elder (430-367), tyrant of Syracuse (405-367), a typically cruel tyrant, suspicious and fearful, II, 25; III, 45 (?); devoted to art and literature, himself a poet crowned with a prize at Athens.

Dionysius, the younger, son of the preceding and tyrant of Syracuse (367-356, 346-343); devoted to literature; Plato, Aristippus, Archytas, and others were brought to his court. Whether the Damon and Phintias story is to be connected with him or his father is uncertain, III, 45 (?).

Drusus, Marcus Livius, son of Gaius Gracchus's colleague in the tribuneship; an eloquent orator, I, 108; as tribune (91) he attempted to renew the social and agrarian legislation of Gracchus and was assassinated.

Duty, the most important subject in philosophy, I, 4; the most fruitful field, III, 5; the philosophic sects and duty, I, 4-6; best presentation, III, 7; classification, I, 7-9; order of importance, I, 58, 152-160; III, 90; to those who have wronged us, I, 33; to an enemy, I, 35-40; III, 98-115; to a slave, I, 41; III, 89; toward the laws, I, 148; of generosity, I, 42-60; of Temperance-Propriety, I, 100-151; III, 116-121; of Fortitude, III, 97-115; to be prosperous, II, 87; duties of youth, I, 122; II, 52; of age, I, 123; of magistrates, I, 124; of statesmen, I, 73-85; of private citizens, I, 124; of aliens, I, 125; _vs._ claims of friendship, III, 43-44; change of duty in change of circumstance, I, 31, 59; III, 32; "mean" and "absolute" duty, I, 8; III, 14; doubts as to, I, 147.

Eloquence, at the bar, II, 66; its decline, II, 67; _see_ Oratory.

Ennius, Quintus (239-169), a Greek by birth, the father of Roman poetry, wrote an epic (the Annals), I, 84; tragedies, I, 26, 51, 52; II, 23, 62; III, 62, 104; comedies and satires.

Epaminondas, one of the greatest men of Greece, a student of Pythagorean philosophy, I, 155; the greatest general of Thebes, victorious at Leuctra (371), I, 84; humbled Sparta and made Thebes the leading city of Greece; fell at Mantinea (362).

Epicurus (342-270), founded at Athens the school that bears his name; author of 300 books, natural and ethical philosophy; held happiness to be the highest good; Cicero confuses his teaching here with that of Aristippus and the Cyrenaics; with the latter, happiness consists in individual pleasures; with Epicurus, it is permanent calm of soul and freedom from pain, with pure and lasting pleasures--the pleasures that come from a life of righteousness, III, 12, 117; the gods existed but had nothing to do with human life, III, 102; adopted the atomic theory. His own life was temperate even to abstinence; his followers went to excess. A very popular school, III, 116; represented by Cicero as illogical, III, 39; their theory of society, I, 158.

Epigoni, the sons of the Seven against Thebes; under Alcmaeon, Diomedes, etc., they conquered and destroyed the city. Subject of a tragedy of Accius, I, 114.

Erillus, of Carthage, pupil of Zeno the Stoic, held that knowledge is the only good, while everything else is neither good nor evil; his ethical theories rejected, I, 6.

Eteocles, son of Oedipus, drove out his brother Polynices, in order to reign alone, and brought on the war of the Seven against Thebes; the brothers fell by each other's hands; III, 82.

Euripides (480-406), tragic poet of Athens; disciple of Anaxagoras and friend of Socrates; wrote 75 to 90 plays; 17 are extant; Cicero quotes from the _Hippolytus_, III, 82; the _Phoenissae_, III, 108.

Evil, the supreme, I, 5; III, 119; not pain, I, 5; III, 105, 117; but moral wrong, III, 105, 106; the only, III, 106.

Expediency, definition, II, 1, 11; indispensable, III, 101; identical with Moral Rectitude, II, 9-10; III, 20, 35, 49, 83, 85, 110; conflict with Moral Rectitude impossible, III, 9, 11, 18, 34, 40, 48, 72; incompatible with immorality, III, 35, 77, 81, 82, 87; II, 64; one standard for both, III, 75; relative, II, 88 fg.; possible change of, III, 95; occasion for doubt, III, 19; apparent conflict with justice, III, 40, 86; apparent political expediency _vs._ humanity, III, 46-49; in business, III, 50 fg.; apparent conflict with Fortitude, III, 97-115; apparent conflict with Temperance, III, 116.

Fabricius; Gaius Fabricius Luscinus, hero of old Rome, famed for integrity and moral dignity; called "the Just," III, 16, 87; consul (282); served against Pyrrhus (280); ambassador to Pyrrhus to negotiate exchange of prisoners; Pyrrhus tried to gain his favour by appeals to his ambition, avarice, and fears--in vain, I, 38; consul again (278), he sent back to Pyrrhus the traitor, I, 40; III, 86-87; a rigorous censor (275); lived and died in poverty.

Fear, the wretchedness of, II, 25-26; _vs._ love, II, 23-26; dangerous to the one who employs it, II, 26.

Fetial Law, the laws of the _Fetiales_, a college of four priests who served as guardians of the public faith; they conducted the ceremonies attendant upon demands for redress, declarations of war, ratification of treaties, establishment of peace; I, 36; III, 108.